Essentials of Understanding Psychology

Robert S. Feldman | Thirteenth Edition

Chapter 9 Development

MODULE 27: Nature and Nurture: The Enduring Developmental Issue

How do psychologists study the degree to which development is an interaction of hereditary and environmental factors?

What is the nature of development before birth?

What factors affect a child during the mother’s pregnancy?

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Developmental Psychology

Study of the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life

Nature-nurture issue: Degree to which environment and heredity influence behavior

Behavioral geneticists – Study the effects of heredity on behavior

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Figure 1: Characteristics Influenced Significantly by Genetic Factors

Physical Characteristics

Height

Weight

Obesity

Tone of voice

Blood pressure

Tooth decay

Athletic ability

Firmness of handshake

Age of death

Activity level

Intellectual Characteristics

Memory

Intelligence

Age of language acquisition

Reading disability

Mental retardation

Emotional Characteristics and Disorders

Shyness

Extraversion

Emotionality

Neuroticism

Schizophrenia

Anxiety

Alcoholism

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Determining the Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture

Genetically control laboratory animals and place in varied environments

Findings from animal research provide important information that cannot be obtained for ethical reasons by using human participants

Identical twins: Twins who are genetically identical

Source of information about the relative effects of genetic and environmental factors

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Developmental Research Techniques

Cross-sectional research: Compares people of different ages at the same point in time

Assess differences among groups of people

Longitudinal research: Investigates behavior as participants age

Assess change in behavior over time

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Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth (1)

Chromosomes: Rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information

Genes: Parts of the chromosomes through which genetic information is transmitted

Composed of sequences of DNA

Control the development of systems of the human species – Heart, circulatory system, brain, lungs, and so forth

Shape the characteristics that make each human unique

Determines child’s sex by a particular combination

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Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth (2)

Human genome project

Scientists mapped the specific location and sequence of every human gene

Revolutionized health care because:

Scientists identified the particular genes responsible for genetically caused disorders

Led to the:

Identification of risk factors in children

Development of new treatments for physical and psychological disorders

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The Earliest Development (1)

Zygote: New cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm

First 2 weeks are known as the germinal period

Embryo: Developed zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other organs

Embryonic period – Entered by the developing individual, two weeks after conception

Organs are clearly recognizable, despite being at a primitive stage of development

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The Earliest Development (2)

Fetus: Developing individual from 8 weeks after conception until birth

Fetal period

Movements become strong enough for the mother to sense them

Age of viability: Point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely

Prenatal development involves passing through several sensitive periods

Time when organisms are susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli

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The Earliest Development (3)

Preterm infants – Born before week 38

Unable to develop fully in utero, infants are at higher risk for illness, future problems, and death

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Genetic Influences on the Fetus

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Sickle-cell anemia

Tay-Sachs disease

Down syndrome

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Prenatal Environmental Influences

Teratogens: Environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that produce a birth defect

Mother’s nutrition

Mother’s illness

Mother’s emotional state

Mother’s alcohol and/or drug use, including nicotine

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Figure 3: Environmental Factors and Development

Environmental Factor	Possible Effect on Prenatal Development
Rubella (German measles)	Blindness, deafness, heart abnormalities, stillbirth
Syphilis	Intellectual disability, physical deformities, maternal miscarriage
Addictive drugs	Low birth weight, addiction of infant to drug, with possible death after birth from withdrawal
Nicotine	Premature birth, low birth weight and length
Alcohol	Intellectual disability, lower-than-average birth weight, small head, limb deformities
Radiation from X-rays	Physical deformities, intellectual disability
Inadequate diet	Reduction in growth of brain, smaller-than-average weight and length at birth
Mother's age—younger than 18 at birth of child	Premature birth, increased incidence of Down syndrome
Mother's age—older than 35 at birth of child	Increased incidence of Down syndrome
DES (diethylstilbestrol)	Reproductive difficulties and increased incidence of genital cancer in children of mothers who were given DES during pregnancy to prevent miscarriage
AIDS	Possible spread of AIDS virus to infant; facial deformities; growth failure
Accutane	Intellectual disability and physical deformities

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Alternative Paths to Conception

In Virto Fertilization (IVF)

Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT)

Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer (ZIFT)

Surrogacy

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MODULE 28: Infancy and Childhood

What are the major competencies of newborns?

What are the milestones of physical and social development during childhood?

How does cognitive development proceed during childhood?

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The Extraordinary Newborn (1)

Neonate: Newborn child

Factors causing neonate’s strange appearance

Squeezing of the incompletely formed bones during trip through the mother’s birth canal

Vernix – White greasy covering, for protection before birth

Lanugo – Soft fuzz, over the entire body

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The Extraordinary Newborn (2)

Reflexes: Unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli

Rooting reflex

Sucking reflex

Gag reflex

Startle reflex

Babinski reflex

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Figure 1: Voluntary Movement Milestones

Source: Adapted from Frankenburg et al., 1992.

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Development of the Senses: Taking in the World

Habituation: Decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus

Visual abilities grow rapidly after birth

Distinguishing different sounds

Recognizes mother’s voice at the age of 3 days

Distinguishing taste and smell

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Infancy Through Childhood

Physical development

Children gain triple their birth weight during first year of life

Increase in height by half during first year of life

From age 3 to adolescence, average growth of 5 pounds and 3 inches per year

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Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World (1)

Attachment: Positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual

Konrad Lorenz

Focused on newborn goslings

Labeled a process called imprinting

Imprinting – Behavior that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object observed

Harry Harlow’s study on attachment

Wire monkey versus cloth monkey

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Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World (2)

Assessing attachment

Ainsworth strange situation: involving a child and caregiver (typically mother)

Securely attached children

Avoidant children

Ambivalent children

Disorganized-disoriented children

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Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World (3)

Father’s role

Number of fathers who are primary caregivers for their children has grown significantly

Engage in more physical, rough-and-tumble activities

Nature of attachment to children can be similar to that of mother’s

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Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World (4)

Social relationships with peers

Helps children interpret the meaning of others’ behavior and develop the capacity to respond appropriately

Helps children learn physical and emotional self-control

Provides children with opportunities for social interaction, enhancing their social development

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Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World (5)

Consequences of child care outside the home

High-quality care centers can positively impact the child

Children in child care are more considerate and sociable than other children

Children in child care interact more positively with teachers

Intellectually more stimulating

Low-quality child care provides little or no gain and may even hinder development

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Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World (6)

Parenting styles and social development

Authoritarian parents: Parents who are rigid and punitive and value unquestioning obedience from their children

Permissive parents: Parents who give their children relaxed or inconsistent direction and, although they are warm, require little of them

Authoritative parents: Parents who are firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, and explain things to them

Uninvolved parents: Parents who show little interest in their children and are emotionally detached

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Figure 7: Parenting Styles

Parenting Style	Parent Behavior	Type of Behavior Produced in Child
Authoritarian	Rigid, punitive, strict standards (example: "If you don't clean your room, I'm going to take away your iPod for good and ground you.")	Unsociable, unfriendly, withdrawn
Permissive	Lax, inconsistent, undemanding (example: "It might be good to clean your room, but I guess it can wait.")	Immature, moody, dependent, low self-control
Authoritative	Firm, sets limits and goals, uses reasoning, encourages independence (example: "You'll need to clean your room before we can go out to the restaurant. As soon as you finish, we'll leave.")	Good social skills, likable, self-reliant, independent
Uninvolved	Detached emotionally, sees role only as providing food, clothing, and shelter (example: "I couldn't care less if your room is a pigsty.")	Indifferent, rejecting behavior

Source: © Gary John Norman/Getty Images RF

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Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World (8)

Temperament: Basic, innate characteristic way of responding and behavioral style

Resilience – Ability to overcome circumstances that place children at high risk for psychological or even physical harm

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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development (1)

Psychosocial development: Development of individuals’ interactions and understanding of each other and of their knowledge and understanding of themselves as members of society

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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development (2)

Trust-versus-mistrust stage

Occurring from birth to age 1½ years

Develop feelings of trust or lack of trust

Autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage

Occurring during 1½ to 3 years of age

Develop independence or self-doubt

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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development (3)

Initiative-versus-guilt stage

Occurring between 3 to 6 years of age

Experiences conflict between independence of action and negative results of that action

Industry-versus-inferiority stage

Occurring between 6 to 12 years of age

Develop positive social interactions

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Cognitive Development: Children’s Thinking About the World (1)

The process by which a child’s understanding of the world changes as a function of age and experience

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

Sensorimotor stage: Stage from birth to 2 years, during which a child has little competence in representing the environment by using images, language, or other symbols

Object permanence: Awareness that objects continue to exist even if they are out of sight

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Cognitive Development: Children’s Thinking About the World (2)

Preoperational stage: Period from 2 to 7 years of age that is characterized by language development

Egocentric thought: Way of thinking in which a child views the world entirely from his or her own perspective

Principle of conservation: Knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects

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Cognitive Development: Children’s Thinking About the World (3)

Concrete operational stage: Period from 7 to 12 years of age that is characterized by logical thought and a loss of egocentrism

Formal operational stage: Period from age 12 to adulthood that is characterized by abstract thought

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Figure 8: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Cognitive Stage	Approximate Age Range	Major Characteristics
Sensorimotor	Birth—2 years	Development of object permanence, development of motor skills, little or no capacity for symbolic representation
Preoperational	2 to 7 years	Development of language and symbolic thinking, egocentric thinking
Concrete operational	7 to 12 years	Development of conservation, mastery of concept of reversibility
Formal operational	12 years-adulthood	Development of logical and abstract thinking

Source: © Farrell Grehan/Corbis

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Information-Processing Approaches (1)

The way in which people take in, use, and store information

Metacognition: An awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes

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Information-Processing Approaches (2)

Vygotsky’s view of cognitive development – considering culture

Cognitive development occurs as a consequence of social interactions in which children work with others to jointly solve problems

Zone of proximal development (ZPD): Gap between what children already are able to accomplish on their own and what they are not quite ready to do by themselves

Scaffolding – Provides support for learning

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MODULE 29: Adolescence: Becoming an Adult

What major physical, social, and cognitive transitions characterize adolescence?

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Adolescence: Becoming an Adult

Developmental stage between childhood and adulthood

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Physical Development: The Changing Adolescent

Puberty: Period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs beginning at about age:

11 or 12 years for girls

Menstruation

13 or 14 years for boys

Spermarche

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Figure 1: The Range of Ages During Which Major Sexual Changes Occur

Source: Adapted from Tanner, 1978.

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Moral and Cognitive Development: Distinguishing Right from Wrong

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

Suggests that the changes in moral reasoning can be understood as a three-level sequence

Preconventional morality

Conventional morality

Postconventional morality

Difficulty with the theory – Pertains to judgments, not moral behavior

Moral development in women

Difference exists in the way each gender views moral behavior

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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development: The Search for Identity (1)

Identity-versus-role-confusion stage

Occurring in adolescence

Major testing to determine one’s unique qualities

Intimacy-versus-isolation stage

Occurring in early adulthood

Focused on developing close relationships

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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development: The Search for Identity (2)

Identity: Distinguishing character of the individual:

Who each of us is, what our roles are, and what we are capable of

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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development: The Search for Identity (3)

Generativity-versus-stagnation stage

Occurring in middle adulthood

Take stock of our contributions to family and society

Ego-integrity-versus-despair stage

Occurring in late adulthood

Focused on review of life’s accomplishments and failures

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Figure 3: Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development:

Stage	Approximate Age	Positive Outcomes	Negative Outcomes
Trust-versus-mistrust	Birth-1½ years	Feelings of trust from environmental support	Fear and concern regarding others
Autonomy-versus-shame- and-doubt	1½ to 3 years	Self-sufficiency if exploration is encouraged	Doubts about self, lack of independence
Initiative-versus-guilt	3 to 6 years	Discovery of ways to initiate actions	Guilt from actions and thoughts
Industry-versus-inferiority	6 to 12 years	Development of sense of competence	Feelings of inferiority, no sense of mastery
Identity-versus-role-Confusion	Adolescence	Awareness of uniqueness of self, knowledge of role to be followed	Inability to identify appropriate roles in life
Intimacy-versus-isolation	Early adulthood	Development of loving, sexual relationships and close friendships	Fear of relationships with others
Generativity-versus-stagnation	Middle adulthood	Sense of contribution to continuity of life	Trivialization of one's activities
Ego-integrity-versus-despair	Late adulthood	Sense of unity in life's accomplishments	Regret over lost opportunities of life

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Stormy Adolescence: Myth or Reality?

Adolescent egocentrism – State of self-absorption in which a teenager views the world from his own point of view

Personal fables – Belief that one’s experience is unique, exceptional, and shared by no one else

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Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World

Adolescent suicide: Third leading cause of death for adolescents

Warning signs

School problems

Frequent incidents of self-destructive behavior

Loss of appetite or excessive eating

Withdrawal from friends and peers

Sleeping problems

Signs of depression, tearfulness, or overt indications of psychological difficulties

Preoccupation with death

Putting affairs in order

Explicit announcement of suicidal thoughts

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Module 30: Adulthood

What are the principal kinds of physical, social, and intellectual changes that occur in early and middle adulthood, and what are their causes?

How does the reality of late adulthood differ from the stereotypes about that period?

How can we adjust to death?

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Adulthood

Emerging adulthood: Period beginning in the late teenage years and extending into the mid-twenties

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Physical Development: The Peak of Health

For most people, early adulthood marks the peak of physical health

Around age 25, the body becomes slightly less efficient and more susceptible to disease

Menopause: Women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile

Treated through hormone therapy (HT) with hormones estrogen and progesterone

Risks associated with HT

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Social Development: Working at Life

People typically launch themselves into careers, marriage, and families during this period

Midlife transition – Period when people may begin to question their lives

Midlife crisis

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Marriage, Children, and Divorce: Family Ties

Changes in marriage and divorce trends have doubled the number of single-parent households in the United States over the last two decades

Probability of divorce

Economic and emotional consequences for the single-parent households

Often economically less well off

Children: parents’ divorce may result in obstacles establishing close relationships later in life

Children: may blame themselves, or feel pressure to take sides

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Changing Roles of Men and Women: The Time of Their Lives

More women act simultaneously as wives, mothers, and wage earners

Women’s “second shift”

Additional work performed by women with a career and home responsibilities

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Physical Changes in Late Adulthood: The Aging Body

Genetic preprogramming theories of aging

Suggest that human cells have a built-in time limit to their reproduction and that they are no longer able to divide after a certain time

Wear-and-tear theories of aging

Suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply stop working efficiently

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Cognitive Changes: Thinking About – and During – Late Adulthood

Fluid intelligence – Information-processing skills such as memory, calculations, and analogy

Shows decline in late adulthood

Crystallized intelligence – Based on the accumulation of information, skills, and strategies learned through experience

Remains steady and in some cases improves

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Figure 2: Age-Related Changes in Intellectual Skills Vary

Source: Adapted from Schaie, 2005a.

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Cognitive Changes: Thinking About – and During – Late Adulthood (1)

Memory changes in late adulthood: Are older adults forgetful?

Senility – Severe cases of memory decline accompanied by other cognitive difficulties

Alzheimer’s disease: Progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities

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Cognitive Changes: Thinking About – and During – Late Adulthood (2)

Social world of late adulthood: Old but not alone

Disengagement theory of aging: Suggests that aging produces a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels

Activity theory of aging: Suggests that successful aging is characterized by maintaining the interests and activities of earlier stages of life

Life review: Process by which people examine and evaluate their lives

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Adjusting to Death

Five stages of facing impending death suggested by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross

Denial

Anger

Bargaining

Depression

Acceptance

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Accessibility Content: Text Alternatives for Images

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Appendix: Image Descriptions for Unsighted Students

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Figure 1: Voluntary Movement Milestones Text Alternative

Figure 1 is a series of labeled illustrations showing the ages when 50% of children are able to perform various skills. As the figure demonstrates visually, at 3.2 months a baby can roll over, at 3.3 months a baby can grasp a rattle, at 5.9 month a baby can sit up without support, at 7.2 months a baby can stand while holding on to something, at 8.2 months a baby can grasp something with thumb and forefinger, at 11.5 months a baby can stand alone well, at 12.3 months a baby can walk well, at 14.8 months a baby can build a tower with two cubes, at 16.6 months a baby can walk up steps, and at 23.8 months a baby can jump in place.

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Figure 1: The Range of Ages During Which Major Sexual Changes Occur Text Alternative

Figure 1 consists of two bar graphs, one showing the range of ages when sexual changes occur in boys, the other showing the range for girls. Both graphs chart ages from 10 to 18 on the horizontal axis and list the types of changes on the vertical axis. For boys, a height spurt occurs between the ages of 12 and a half and nearly 16, penis growth occurs between the ages of 13 and just over 15, the first ejaculation occurs between the ages of 12 and just under 16, and pubic hair appears between the ages of 12 and 18. For girls, a height spurt occurs between the ages of 11 and 14, the onset of menstruation occurs between the ages of 11 and a half and just under 13, breast development occurs between 11 and a half and 13 and a half, and the pubic hair appears between the ages of 11 and 14.

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Figure 2: Age-Related Changes in Intellectual Skills Vary Text Alternative

Figure 2 is a multi-line graph charting mean t-scores for various skills on the vertical axis and ages on the horizontal axis. The age range shown is from 25 to 88 in increments of 7 years, and the mean t-scores are from 35 to 55 in increments of 5 points. As the graph shows, inductive reasoning declines from about 51 points at age 25 to about 42 points at age 88, spatial orientation declines from about 48 points at age 25 to about 42 points at age 88, perceptual speed declines from about 52 points at age 25 to about 40 points at age 88, numeric ability declines from about 53 points at age 25 to about 37 points at age 88, verbal ability declines from about 50 points at age 25 to about 45 points at age 88, and verbal memory declines from about 50 points at age 25 to about 39 points at age 88.

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