Category: samples and paper topics

7Potlatch as Pedagogy

The first time I recognized the potlatch was being used as pedagogy was at the gyaa ‘isdlaa in 2016. I had recently completed my PhD in education, and my eyes could only see the world through a lens of learning. As I witnessed the gyaa ‘isdlaa, I was able to understand for the first time how the Haida potlatch was being used as a tool to relearn and reteach ceremony. My father had relearned ceremonial knowledge from the Elders in preparation for the pole raising, and he was now using the potlatch as a means of sharing what he had learned about our ancestral knowledge with our community. However, my own understanding of my father’s achievement emerged from my observations as an educator, so I asked him if it had been his intention to teach about ceremony and protocol through the potlatch.

When I look back, it certainly has that feeling. But I don’t claim that, I think it has to come from someone else. But I know in terms of ceremony, it certainly helped me to understand the art form. Like up to that point, the art was really a commodity for me – and the fact that the Elders responded in the way that they did gave it more credence. I didn’t realize how important ceremony was until that event happened. I didn’t realize how serious it was, especially to have Naanii and Tsinii host the several meetings at their house. Inviting all the old people in the village to express their opinion on how to conduct the day. It was really all the old people, the Elders coming together that was the recipe for the day, the agenda.

My father follows his intuition, but my mind operates in frameworks. My knowledge needs to be attached to a solid structure that can support it to expand and grow. As I reflected on the ways in which my father had used the potlatch as a form of pedagogy I realized, that without knowing it or intending to, he had used the sk’ad’a principles to teach us about Haida ancestral knowledge. Through

Davidson, Sara Florence, and Robert Davidson. Potlatch As Pedagogy : Learning Through Ceremony, Portage & Main Press, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ubc/detail.action?docID=5493224.Created from ubc on 2023-06-19 04:18:26.

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68 | Potlatch as Pedagogy

the preparation and hosting of potlatches and feasts, he had demonstrated that learning emerges from strong relationships, authentic experiences, and from curiosity; that learning occurs through observation, contribution, and recognizing and encouraging strengths; and that learning honours the power of the mind, our history and our stories, as well as spirituality and protocol.

Learning Emerges from Strong Relationships

My father’s learning about the protocols associated with the traditional pole raising relied upon his relationships. Even his initial understanding of the information being shared at the Elders’ meetings relied upon his connections with his uncles Victor and Alfred who were able to translate the knowledge from Haida to English. Later, when he was preparing to host his own potlatches, his learning relied upon his ability to create strong allies. His relationship with his naanii allowed her to guide him in establishing these allies; she also taught him the songs and dances that were vital components of the potlatches and feasts.

As an educator, I know that my students’ learning relies upon my ability to develop strong relationships, and that without those relationships, meaningful learning is unlikely to occur. My first priority is always to develop strong and respectful relationships with my students. Though I have not always been successful, it remains essential to me to continue to work at developing and strengthening those relationships. Strong relationships are particularly important when students are struggling in school because they need to be able to trust educators enough to allow them to provide support.

Learning Emerges from Authentic Experiences

In the stories my father told, he learned from authentic experiences, and he attributed his learning to the experience of hosting the potlatches and feasts.

Naanii and Tsinii’s generation, they were the last generation [connected] to that ancient past, and I feel so lucky that I was able to relearn some of that. I don’t speak Haida, but hosting the feasts and the potlatches, it was a learning exercise for me. I wouldn’t have gained the insights if I’d just intellectualized about it. So actually going through the process. Sure I may have wrinkled a few people along the way, but that is the learning curve for me, to rectify it.

My father did not place much value on the intellectualizing aspects of his cultural experiences, but I believe these aspects did play a role in his learning.

Davidson, Sara Florence, and Robert Davidson. Potlatch As Pedagogy : Learning Through Ceremony, Portage & Main Press, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ubc/detail.action?docID=5493224.Created from ubc on 2023-06-19 04:18:26.

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Potlatch as Pedagogy | 69

However, “going through the process” had more of an impact on him because the theoretical knowledge became immediately applicable to a specific activity; it was not shared in isolation of the activity. The act of hosting a potlatch or feast provided a medium through which he could immediately demonstrate his learning and receive immediate feedback. Dancing the K’awhlaa mask gave my father the opportunity to learn more about the mask’s historical attributes. Creating the mask provided the opportunity to share what he had learned, and dancing the mask in a public forum provided the opportunity for immediate feedback. In this way, the learning was embedded in the activity.

I am often asked about the term authentic, as some people struggle with the word. In response, I explain that authentic learning experiences often take place outside of the classroom; however, this is not a requirement. Rather, the learning must be applicable to the students’ lives outside of school. When students learn from these authentic experiences, it also reinforces the importance of what they are learning. The sole purpose for learning something new should not be to “do better in school.” Formal education can lose its meaning for many students when it does not allow them to imagine themselves in the worlds they inhabit outside of school.

Learning Emerges from Curiosity

My father’s learning about ceremony and protocol emerged from the questions that he asked. This curiosity helped him to gather information when he wondered which songs to sing at the opening of the Charles Edenshaw Memorial Longhouse or whether or not he could introduce the end of mourning ceremony at his potlatch. Though my father continues to have questions, he must now seek his own answers to these questions. The Elders who were once there to guide him are now gone, and he must ask his family and friends or seek the guidance in books that have been written about our old ways. He firmly believes that he learned so much about Haida ceremony and protocol because of the questions he asked. Furthermore, he recognizes that it was through his ability to ask for help that he was able to learn from his grandparents and other Elders.

In order to really honour our past [I needed] to ask questions on how to conduct a feast, how to conduct a potlatch. And that’s one of the lessons I learned from Naanii was to ask so and so, go talk to so and so. Uncle Alfred, he was always a good guide, Uncle Victor, Dad. So I feel telling these stories [here] will add depth to my efforts.

Davidson, Sara Florence, and Robert Davidson. Potlatch As Pedagogy : Learning Through Ceremony, Portage & Main Press, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ubc/detail.action?docID=5493224.Created from ubc on 2023-06-19 04:18:26.

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70 | Potlatch as Pedagogy

I am sure it is not lost on my father that my own curiosity has prompted all of my questions, and it is a testament to his commitment to sharing his knowledge that he has never once become impatient and said, “jaa ‘aayaa.” The conversations have never been cut short, and perhaps this is his way of telling me that these are questions that need to be asked.

As educators, we often feel pressure to have all of the answers. As a result, we may guide our students to ask questions that align with our knowledge. But we do not need to have all of the answers. We can model curiosity for our students. We can seek answers to our own questions and teach students how to be comfortable with their curiosity and to find answers for themselves. Sometimes, the answers will not be known. In those moments, we can improvise based upon the knowledge we do have. We can also seek guidance in the same way that my father sought guidance so long ago, and the way he continues to seek guidance today.

Learning Occurs through Observation

My father observed gaps in our knowledge and understanding, and this awareness led him to host and co-host the feasts and potlatches. The understanding of these gaps guided the knowledge he sought, and his ability to learn through observation guided this learning.

When my great-grandmother taught my father how to dance the K’awhlaa, she did it by dancing the K’awhlaa, and he learned through watching her. His understanding of how he had learned through observation guided his thinking about how he might teach others through observation.

All that I’ve learned is through demonstration. I’ve hired outside [dance] groups so that they could share with us where they’re at through their song and dance. In 1981, I hired the K’san Dancers and they danced for us and that helped, so other people could witness where they’re at with their song and dance. And with the gyaa ‘isdlaa I hired Calvin Hunt and his group, and they danced for us and demonstrated where they’re at through their song and dance. In Vancouver when I hosted the urban feasts, I did the same again. I hired outside groups so that they could share where they’re at.

In this way, my father helped others to learn through observation.

Observation takes time. If we learn in this way, it will be a while before we are comfortable sharing what we understand. Therefore, we need to make time for learning through observation and honour the time that it takes for

Davidson, Sara Florence, and Robert Davidson. Potlatch As Pedagogy : Learning Through Ceremony, Portage & Main Press, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ubc/detail.action?docID=5493224.Created from ubc on 2023-06-19 04:18:26.

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Potlatch as Pedagogy | 71

new understandings to emerge. Sometimes, it means we need to provide opportunities for our students to observe new skills before trying them independently. Sometimes, it means we need to slow down in our teaching to make space to support engagement with new topics.

Learning Occurs through Contribution

In his teachings, my father has always emphasized the importance of making a contribution; he does this through hosting feasts and potlatches, mentoring emerging artists, and sharing the knowledge that he has gained through his experiences. The significance of contribution was a recurring theme throughout all of our conversations. My father understood that carving the pole was a way to contribute to the community. Later, the potlatches and feasts that he hosted and co-hosted were his way of making a contribution. The knowledge that he gathered in preparation for these feasts and potlatches was shared publicly and contributed by strengthening our connection to our ancestors. His art was also a contribution. It began with a pole, and throughout the years, my father has given bronze and aluminum sculptures back to the village in acknowledgement of the strength and inspiration that he continues to draw from his community. Though these examples of contribution differ from fishing for halibut with his tsinii, the significance of making a contribution remains the same.

There are two aspects of the principle, “learning occurs through contribution.” The first is how important learning becomes if we are learning for the purpose of contributing. If your family’s supper is reliant upon your ability to catch a salmon, then you are going to be very motivated to learn to fish. The second involves recognizing the importance of making contributions in our culture. My father learned from the Elders for the purpose of sharing his knowledge, just as I pursued my education because I wanted to be able to contribute to my community through what I learned at school. In each of these examples, the learning emerged through a motivation to make a contribution to the community. In other words, it may be difficult to make learning relevant for Haida students if what is being taught does not lead to the ability to make a contribution to their family and community. This commitment to community and family as opposed to the individual is a way of being that has been carried forward from our past and is often misunderstood by educators who have been trained in mainstream educational institutions.

Davidson, Sara Florence, and Robert Davidson. Potlatch As Pedagogy : Learning Through Ceremony, Portage & Main Press, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ubc/detail.action?docID=5493224.Created from ubc on 2023-06-19 04:18:26.

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72 | Potlatch as Pedagogy

Learning Occurs Through Recognizing and Encouraging Strengths

My father recalled that my great-grandfather came to help him carve the pole, even though he was 89 years old. He recognized that this was my great-grandfather’s way of encouraging him in his work. This was my great-grandfather’s way of recognizing my father’s ability to carve. My great-grandmother saw my father’s potential as a liaison between the old people’s knowledge and future generations, so she sent my father to talk to them. This was her way of acknowledging and encouraging my father’s strength to bring together the old ways and the ways of today.

We can do this with our students as well. It is easy to point out what they are doing wrong, but how many times do we remember to acknowledge their strengths and their successes? We can take the time to get to know the students in our lives well enough to recognize and encourage their strengths. We can provide them with opportunities to share their strengths with others, so that their strengths are developed further.

Learning Honours the Power of the Mind

My father began carving the pole with only an idea and the vision that he would complete it. Throughout our conversations he also referenced his commitment to visualizing the outcome with regard to the potlatches and the feasts. In this way, he honoured the power of his mind to guide him. His ability to trust his vision was nurtured by his family, who reinforced and encouraged his strength.

In schools, we must reinforce and encourage students’ strengths so that they too can use the power of their minds to successfully achieve what they set out to do. They must be able to see themselves as successful so they can accomplish these outcomes for themselves. As educators, we also need to support our students to strengthen their minds against adversity and continue to visualize a positive outcome for themselves.

Learning Honours History and Story

We have access to much of our knowledge today because our history and stories were kept alive through picnics, Christmas dinners, and weddings. Fragments of knowledge were pieced together to form a mosaic of narratives that taught us and connected us to our past. This knowledge is the reason we can still sing our

Davidson, Sara Florence, and Robert Davidson. Potlatch As Pedagogy : Learning Through Ceremony, Portage & Main Press, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ubc/detail.action?docID=5493224.Created from ubc on 2023-06-19 04:18:26.

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Potlatch as Pedagogy | 73

old songs. This knowledge is the reason we can still dance our old dances. This knowledge is the reason we still know how to feast and potlatch.

In the classroom, I also use stories to teach. The narratives I share have the power to build connections between my students and me, and I always encourage other educators to share parts of themselves that they are comfortable sharing, by telling the stories of their lives. In my experience, it rarely works to formally teach a teenager about life. On the other hand, they will often listen to my stories and occasionally enjoy a laugh at the expense of my much younger and less wise self.

We can also follow appropriate protocols to incorporate traditional Indigenous stories into our classes. This provides students with different perspectives on the role and use of stories while introducing them to diverse story arcs. I am consistently amazed by the power of stories to connect me with the generations that came before me, as well as with present and future generations.

Learning Honours Aspects of Spirituality and Protocol

My father explained that in 1969 all he had to contribute was the pole, and it was the Elders who brought the pole to life through their old knowledge. He said that the depth of the knowledge emerged through the ceremony they brought to the pole.

When we share our knowledge, there is no separation between the spiritual realm and the one in which we live. With his chant around the pole, my father breathed life into the pole – as a living being, his equal. My great-grandfather spoke to the halibut like a person; there was no distinction between the human and the animal worlds. The end of mourning ceremony allows us to visit our loved ones one more time after they are gone.

Though it may not always be appropriate to share ceremonial knowledge publicly in a school setting, we need to recognize that this spiritual knowledge is a significant aspect of the knowledge that our students bring with them from their homes and communities to school. We need to ensure that we do not undermine that knowledge with our teaching. Spiritual understandings may significantly contribute to our students’ identities, and they need to be honoured and respected.

Davidson, Sara Florence, and Robert Davidson. Potlatch As Pedagogy : Learning Through Ceremony, Portage & Main Press, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ubc/detail.action?docID=5493224.Created from ubc on 2023-06-19 04:18:26.

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74 | Potlatch as Pedagogy

The Paper Bag

The Potlatch Ban severely impacted our ability to use the potlatch to reinforce our identity and culture as Haida people. Our Elders managed to preserve some of the knowledge to share with future generations, but so much of it was lost. Those Elders, who my father used to seek out for guidance, are now gone. My father recognizes that it is now his generation that people seek out for direction, as we continue to piece together our past while recognizing we must also embrace the new ways of the present. I asked my father about the difference between the pole raising in 1969 and the potlatches and feasts that he hosts today, and he explained, “The biggest difference is my generation is the Elders now. I asked, where are my teachers? They’re all gone. So, we have to take responsibility now, my generation.” Each time that we come together, we continue to add threads to the rope, and as we work together to remember our ancient knowledge, we reinforce our memories and keep our knowledge alive. Though the contemporary potlatch is different than the old ones that were hosted before contact, it continues to serve an integral role in maintaining and strengthening our traditions.

According to Métis father-and-son researchers Jeff and Lee Baker (2010), “Many of us have been severed from our roots and forgotten the deep sense of relation with our ancestors, the planet, and the cosmos, that have characterized human experience for millennia” (98). However, based on what I learned from my father about sk’ad’a and ceremony I believe that our connection to our roots has merely been dormant, and as we honour and bring together the pieces of our ancient knowledge and our history, we will revive that connection once again.

I know the K’awhlaa dance today because my grandmother put a paper bag over her head so she could teach my father this dance, so this knowledge would remain with us long after her life ended. I will never know why she hid her face with a paper bag when she shared her knowledge of this dance with my father. Sometimes I wonder if it was because of the residual shame that she was made to feel about her ancestral beliefs and practices. Sometimes I wonder if it was to find the courage to pass on the dance. Always I am grateful that she was able to improvise using that paper bag so the dance could be passed on to her grandchildren and their grandchildren and all of the grandchildren in the generations to come, and always I am grateful that my father was there and willing to learn the dance.

Davidson, Sara Florence, and Robert Davidson. Potlatch As Pedagogy : Learning Through Ceremony, Portage & Main Press, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ubc/detail.action?docID=5493224.Created from ubc on 2023-06-19 04:18:26.

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A long time ago, my father began to see the gaps in our understanding of our ceremonial practices. He, my uncle, and others were determined to learn more about our ancestral knowledge in order to share it with us. I am grateful that my father believed that every time he hosted a potlatch or feast, it expanded his experience and knowledge. I am grateful that he felt good about giving. As he explained, “I feel good about giving. I feel that I am also learning from it. Every potlatch that I’ve hosted and co-hosted, I’m learning something from it.” Always, I am grateful that my father was able to teach us some of the old ways using potlatch as pedagogy.

Potlatch as Pedagogy | 75

Davidson, Sara Florence, and Robert Davidson. Potlatch As Pedagogy : Learning Through Ceremony, Portage & Main Press, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ubc/detail.action?docID=5493224.Created from ubc on 2023-06-19 04:18:26.

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Davidson, Sara Florence, and Robert Davidson. Potlatch As Pedagogy : Learning Through Ceremony, Portage & Main Press, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ubc/detail.action?docID=5493224.Created from ubc on 2023-06-19 04:18:26.

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Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found athttps://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ciey20

International Journal of Early Years Education

ISSN: 0966-9760 (Print) 1469-8463 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ciey20

Documentation panels: supporting youngchildren’s self-regulatory and metacognitiveabilities

Selda Aras & Feyza Tantekin Erden

To cite this article: Selda Aras & Feyza Tantekin Erden (2020) Documentation panels:supporting young children’s self-regulatory and metacognitive abilities, International Journal ofEarly Years Education, 28:1, 63-80, DOI: 10.1080/09669760.2019.1592743

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2019.1592743

Published online: 16 Mar 2019.

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Documentation panels: supporting young children’sself-regulatory and metacognitive abilitiesSelda Aras a and Feyza Tantekin Erden b

aDepartment of Elementary Education, Başkent University, Ankara, Turkey; bDepartment of Elementary andEarly Childhood Education, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey

ABSTRACTIt is thought that our behavioural, social and intellectualdevelopment is fostered in early childhood alongside theacquisition of metacognitive and self-regulatory abilities. Thisqualitative investigation reports on how 11 children applied theseskills via pedagogical documentation. Participant observation andinterviews were used to gather data through documentationpanel activities over a period of seven weeks. Data were codedand analysed with reference to the Cambridge IndependentLearning (C.Ind.Le) framework. In this way, a specific application ofa pedagogical documentation process was observed for evidenceof how sharing time sessions and reflective dialogues withdocumentation panels supported children’s use of self-regulatoryand metacognitive abilities.

ARTICLE HISTORYReceived 23 May 2018Accepted 25 January 2019

KEYWORDSYoung children; pedagogicaldocumentation; self-regulation; metacognition

Introduction

Studies on pedagogical documentation, though few in number, confirm that it is a processthat supports children’s motivation, participation, self-awareness, mental processes, andreflection (Bath 2012; Buldu 2010; Rintakorpi and Reunamo 2016). Research assertsthat such processes foster children’s self-regulation and metacognition; consequently,the topic has recently begun to attract academic attention (Clark 2012; Rinaldi 2001).

Self-regulation and metacognition are vital to student learning and are considered tohave a ‘central role in influencing learning and achievement in school and beyond’ (Boe-kaerts and Cascallar 2006, 199). The literature offers key evidence of the influences of earlyself-regulatory and metacognitive abilities on developmental outcomes and short- andlong-term academic achievements (Blair and Razza 2007; Mitchell, Wylie, and Carr2008). These abilities contribute to children’s readiness for school and support theiracademic skills.

The study reported here has been inspired by the framework developed by Whitebreadet al. (2009) and early work by Flavell (1979) and Ann Brown (1987). Whitebread and col-leagues’model enabled researchers to consider self-regulation and metacognition together‘to recognise those parts of the model of self-regulation which draws heavily upon the cog-nitive tradition’ (Whitebread et al. 2009, 64). Metacognition forms the cognitive sides of

© 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

CONTACT Selda Aras [email protected]

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EARLY YEARS EDUCATION2020, VOL. 28, NO. 1, 63–80https://doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2019.1592743

self-regulation, which also involves affective, motivational, and social elements. Self-regu-lative abilities prompt children to attempt to monitor, regulate, and control their cogni-tion. Children with self- regulatory abilities engage in active roles in problem solvingprocesses. They are observed as individuals who are successful at expressing themselvesand have better self-evaluative skills. The development of self-regulation and metacogni-tion in children largely depends on the environment (Bronson 2000). Recent researchdraws parallels between documentation, as an approach that provides an appropriatelearning environment for reflection, and self-regulation, which emphasises active partici-pation in learning processes and reflection on one’s thinking (Clark 2012). The objective ofdocumentation is to build strong connections between the strategies deployed by childrenwhile they exercise self-regulation (Clark 2012).

Pedagogical documentation is a process-oriented learning and teaching method focus-ing on classroom interactions (Buldu 2010; Dahlberg, Moss, and Pence 1999; Rinaldi2001). During the process, teachers effectively listen to children, observe them, and takenotes and photographs that reflect learning experiences. Then, they prepare documen-tation panels to share what and how students learned; that sharing will support children’sself-esteem and awareness of learning (Edwards and Gandini 2001). Displayed documen-tation panels make children’s learning visible through photographs, quotations, artifacts,and teacher analysis. Panels focus on the student voice and work in a particular learningmoment (Kline 2008). Documentation panels may include projects, themes, specificevents or cases, themes from curriculum, acquisition of any skill or ability, learningenvironments, and developmental areas (Seitz 2008). Teachers design sharing timeswith panels and engage children into revisiting and reflecting on their learning in anevidence-based manner.

Significance of the study

The traditional view on self-regulation and metacognition is that young children developthese skills after the age of eight. Recent research, however, has challenged this position onboth methodological and theoretical grounds by exploring the development of self-regu-lation at younger ages (Bronson 2000). Studies investigating self-regulation and metacog-nition among young children has been an area of research in recent years.

Whitebread et al. (2007) argue that metacognitive abilities developed in the early yearsmay have been minimally reported because of the reliance on experimental laboratorystudies and children’s self-reports. However, the limited number of observationalstudies have shown that young children have the potential to exhibit self-regulation andmetacognition. Recent research utilises more age-appropriate methodologies based onnaturally occurring classroom observations to identify self-regulatory and metacognitiveabilities in the early years. For instance, three-year-old children have monitored theirbehaviours while solving a problem, and four-year-old children have demonstrated meta-cognitive abilities (Sperling, Walls, and Hill 2000). Children who are given time to performopen-ended activities and make their decisions independently tend to engage in self-regu-lated learning such as self-evaluations and problem solving (Perry and Drummond 2002).Robson (2010) also engaged with children in reflective dialogue about their completedactivities and tasks and found that children displayed more evidences of self-regulationafter they completed activities. Zachariou and Whitebread (2015) explored 6-year-old

64 S. ARAS AND F. T. ERDEN

children’s self-regulation during musical play through observation and found that musicalplay provided an opportunity for children’s self-regulation. In their observational studyPerry et al. (2002) found the evidences of self-regulation in young children and empha-sised on the role of teacher–child interactions. While it is clear that metacognitive andself-regulatory abilities are vital for children’s early behavioural, social, and intellectualdevelopment, the emergence and development of these abilities are yet to be sufficientlyinvestigated and, therefore, are subject to new evidence in the field (Bronson 2000; White-bread et al. 2009). In particular, more observational studies on children in naturalistic con-texts are warranted (Whitebread et al. 2009).

Pedagogical documentation naturally provides opportunities for children to reflect ontheir thinking and learning. Its philosophical framework is based on making childrenreflect on what and how they have learned. The physical and psychosocial environmentsuggested by pedagogical documentation meets the conditions required to promote theself-regulatory and metacognitive abilities of children. This study combines the two con-cepts by investigating self-regulation and metacognition through the process of pedagogi-cal documentation. The importance of self-regulation and metacognition in the early yearshas been well recognised (Bronson 2000; Robson 2010). In fact, recent studies have calledfor programmes and interventions that can foster these abilities in young children (Daily2013; Diamond and Lee 2011; Hughes 2011). Pedagogical documentation, by nature, canplay a vital role in meeting this objective. This study examines its potential in an explora-tory manner within a naturalistic context. The aim of this study is to explore young chil-dren’s self-regulatory and metacognitive abilities during their pedagogical documentationpractices. The research questions are:

. How do sharing times and reflective dialogues within documentation panel practicessupport young children to demonstrate their self-regulatory and metacognitiveabilities?

. To what extent do young children demonstrate self-regulatory and metacognitive abil-ities through sharing times and reflective dialogues within documentation panelpractices?

Method

Research design

A qualitative exploratory research design was utilised to investigate early self-regulationand metacognition in documentation practices (Yin 2014).

Participants

We used purposeful sampling methods to identify ‘intensity-rich cases that manifest thephenomenon intensely, but not extremely’ (Patton 2002, 243). We also used primary cri-terion sampling to include cases with predetermined criteria (Patton 2002). This researchrequired an early childhood teacher, familiar with pedagogical documentation practices.The study was set in a kindergarten classroom located in a school on a state universitycampus in Ankara, Turkey. The age group of children was in the range of 48–60 months.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EARLY YEARS EDUCATION 65

The teacher selected for this study was a participant in a longitudinal research projecton pedagogical documentation. At the time of the study, the teacher had a year’s experi-ence in in-service teacher training on pedagogical documentation. She had attended semi-nars, workshops, and in-class trainings on the topic. The teacher had 12 children in theclassroom, of whom 11 participated in the study. One child was excluded because thechild’s family refused to grant permission to participate.

Data collection methods

In this study, the sharing times in the documentation panel cycle and the reflective dialo-gues that strengthen these sharing times were used as data sources. Sharing is an importantpart of the documentation panel cycle where children and teachers share their learningexperiences within documentation panels. Teachers organise sharing times in front ofpanels to allow children to reflect on and revisit their learning experiences. Throughoutthis process teachers engaged children in reflective dialogues to foster children’s thinkingabout their learning experiences.

Video-based observationsSeven sharing-time sessions linked to documentation panels were observed and video-recorded throughout the academic semester. The themes and content were selected bythe teacher. We regularly interacted with the teacher, who shared her weekly scheduleat the beginning of each week. We visited the classroom for each sharing-time sessionand conducted participatory observations on the teacher led sharing time sessions.

Reflective dialoguesInterviews with each child were based on the documentation panel. Each interview was ledwith one of the researchers. The interviews were called documentation-stimulated reflec-tive dialogues since the objective was to ask children reflective questions on their experi-ences (Robson 2010).

We used digital recorders to record the documentation-stimulated reflective dialogues.The following are some of the questions posed to the participants: ‘What can you tell meabout the activities on the panel?’ ‘Are you pleased with what you and your friends did?’ ‘Isthere any task that you would want to perform again?’ ‘Do you think anything was hard oreasy?’ The children were also asked to explain the reasoning behind their answers. Reflec-tive dialogues were audio-recorded (Table 1).

Data analysis

Data were analysed using the Cambridgeshire Independent Learning (C.IND.LE) frame-work, developed for identifying indicators of metacognition and self-regulation amongyoung children (Whitebread et al. 2007, 2009) (Appendix A). The observation frameworkincluded a detailed description of verbal and nonverbal behaviours under three key areasof self-regulation and metacognition: (1) metacognitive knowledge, which pertains to theknowledge of persons, tasks, and strategies; (2) metacognitive regulation, which refers tochildren’s cognitive processes during task completion; and (3) emotional and motivational

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regulation, which is defined as monitoring and controlling emotions and motivationduring tasks (Whitebread et al. 2009).

Children’s self-regulatory and metacognitive abilities were observed during the sharing-time sessions and reflective dialogues were conducted with each child based on documen-tation panels. Transcripts of video data obtained during the sharing sessions andtranscripts of audio data during the reflective dialogues were analysed using the codingframework.

Trustworthiness and transferability

A pilot study was conducted to determine the relevance of the procedure. Expert deb-riefing was also used to ensure the credibility of the data. The creator of the codingscheme was consulted as needed, such as for difficulties in categorisation of cases. Inaddition, an early childhood education expert, specialised in pedagogical documentation,self-regulation, and metacognition, checked the coding procedure of the study.

Two coders analysed this study’s data and inter-coder agreement was achieved asfollows. First, the researcher and the recoder separately analysed the data based on thecoding scheme. When they finished, they came together and controlled each other’scoding. The differences between the two analyses were discussed, and the process wasrepeated until an agreement rate of 91% was achieved. In those cases where the researcherand the recoder could not agree, the disputed data were eliminated from the analysis andwere not included in the findings of the study.

Rich, detailed, and concrete descriptions were used to provide readers with a contextand help them draw out meanings and understandings (Patton 2002). Further, thisstudy used children’s quotations and nonverbal behaviours as examples and details oftheir social environment.

Ethical considerations

Research conducted with young children should employ high ethical and methodologicalstandards and a commitment to the well-being, protection and safety of children (Brady,Davey, and Shaw 2011). The participation of children in the study was controlled by a

Table 1. Sequence of data collection process.Weeks Collected data Time spent/Minutes

1st Sharing Time – AnimalsReflective Dialogues

24′35′

2nd Sharing Time – SeasonsReflective Dialogues

20′28′

3rd Sharing Time – MuseumReflective Dialogues

15′30′

4th Sharing Time – Ancient Human BeingsReflective Dialogues

24′28′

5th Sharing Time – Music and EmotionsReflective Dialogues

27′31′

6th Sharing Time – Human BodyReflective Dialogues

13′25′

7th Sharing Time – The ClockReflective Dialogues

16′24′

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EARLY YEARS EDUCATION 67

hierarchy of gatekeepers, responsible for the protection and safety of children such as anethics committee, parents, and experts (Hill et al. 2004).

Informed consent was obtained from the parents and it was ensured that parents wereinformed about the procedure and assured of complete confidentiality. A form confirmingvoluntary participation was also obtained from the teacher. The study was also approvedby the Ethics Committee of a state university in Ankara, Turkey.

The difficulty for researchers seeking to access children’s voices lie in both their datacollection and data analysis methods. In terms of our study, we did not seek to promptchildren for correct answers and focused on the reflective dialogues they engaged induring routine activities in class. Throughout, we sought to maintain a child-centredresearch approach. We believe we achieved this by offering children sufficient opportu-nities to express assent, dissent and views; considering the child’s willingness to partici-pate, and listening to the child (Flewitt 2005). Besides, the study did not utilise aninterventional approach. The observations that were recorded were the daily implemen-tations of the teacher. All children’s dialogues in this study were obtained with the per-mission of the teacher, parents, and the children themselves.

Findings

Seven sharing-time sessions with seven documentation panels were observed. Eachsharing-time session lasted for 15–40 min. After every session, the children wereinterviewed. They participated in reflective dialogues of 2–7 min. The childrenwere assigned codes: C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, C7, C8, C9, C10, and C11 by theresearchers.

Tables 2 and 3 present the results of the study according to the C.Ind.Le Indicators.

Metacognitive knowledge

We found that sharing-time sessions involving documentation panels and the associatedreflective dialogues support children’s metacognitive knowledge because they enable chil-dren to recognise their own and others’ abilities and cognition. This covers children’sverbal and non-verbal behaviours related to the knowledge of persons, tasks, andstrategies.

Table 2. Frequency of overall total C.Ind.Le indicators—Sharing-times with documentation panels.Category name & behavior indicator P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 T

Metacognitive knowledgeKnowledge of persons 1 4 3 0 5 3 4 20Knowledge of tasks 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 3Knowledge of strategies 3 1 2 2 4 0 0 12

Metacognitive regulationPlanning 1 0 1 3 5 1 0 11Monitoring 16 2 3 9 14 7 10 61Control 8 0 6 2 10 3 2 31Evaluation 4 0 2 2 1 1 0 10

Emotional/Motivational regulationEmotional/Motivational monitoring 12 2 3 2 5 0 3 27Emotional/Motivational control 3 0 2 0 0 0 0 5

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Knowledge of personsIt was observed that seeing their own activity sample or photograph on the panel encour-aged them to talk about the ‘self’, while seeing others’ samples helped them comment onothers’ thinking processes and refer to universal cognition. Children’s verbalizations oftheir knowledge of persons were generally observed during sharing times within theclassroom.

Some children verbalised their strengths or weaknesses in the context of learning andacademic skills. The excerpt below from sharing time on a panel about the human bodyshows the verbalisation of knowledge of persons. The children were shown an image of aperson sneezing, and this facilitated a discussion on why people sneeze and what the bodyexperiences while sneezing. Children reflected on their previous learning and engaged inthe discussion, demonstrating their metacognitive knowledge of universals such as‘Teacher, we also close our eyes when we sneeze.’ (C5) and ‘If you put salt in yourmouth and scatter it around, you sneeze.’ (C6).

During the sharing-time session involving the panel on museums, C11 commented onpeople’s universal cognition.

Teacher Why do we visit museums, I wonder?C11 Because of what they have there. We look around, see what they have there, and,

it’s like, we get excited to go. To see things like a dinosaur, insects, an old car, andanimals. We get excited when we look at them and see what they are; that’s whywe want to visit a museum.

The children were keen to display their personal knowledge and used their mental statevocabulary to comment on themselves; for example, ‘I don’t remember the reason (C1)’, or‘I don’t remember what music this is (C5)’. Children also demonstrated their knowledge oftheir preferences. For example, during a sharing session on the panel on music andemotions, C8 expressed his knowledge of self: ‘I did this because I like this kind ofmusic; oh yeah, rock music!’

The children also demonstrated their knowledge of others during sharing-time ses-sions. For example, when the class discussed why people used clocks, C8 cited hismother as an example: ‘To understand the time. But, my mum does not understand thetime. My mum gets tired [and sometimes she forgets what day it is].’

Table 3. Frequency of overall total C.Ind.Le indicators—reflective dialogues with documentationpanels.Category name & behaviour indicator P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 T

Metacognitive knowledgeKnowledge of persons 5 1 6 2 0 6 11 31Knowledge of tasks 1 0 5 2 1 0 4 13Knowledge of strategies 4 3 5 5 2 2 1 22

Metacognitive regulationPlanning 2 3 3 4 2 0 4 16Monitoring 1 3 1 2 5 5 2 19Control 1 1 2 1 2 0 0 7Evaluation 6 6 8 9 4 2 3 38

Emotional/Motivational regulationEmotional/Motivational monitoring 1 5 12 7 1 1 3 30Emotional/Motivational control 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EARLY YEARS EDUCATION 69

Moreover, children displayed and reflected on their metacognitive knowledge. Forexample, C6 pointed to the panel about animals and commented, ‘I started from thisbecause I don’t know any of these.’

In a reflective dialogue, C4 uttered the phrase ‘first human being’ while viewing thepanel on ancient human beings and explicitly expressed his capabilities: ‘When it is likethis… but I can move ahead easily without falling.’ Similarly, while talking about themuseum panel, C6 communicated his knowledge of his preferences and capabilities:‘Because now I can draw the dinosaur very well.’

Knowledge of tasksOf the three sub-categories under metacognitive knowledge, knowledge of tasks was the leastobserved ability. Typically, children demonstrated their knowledge of tasks by comparingtasks, judging the difficulty level, or rating the tasks on the basis of their previous knowledge.Using panels, children could simultaneously view their own products and those of theirpeers, which allowed them to draw conclusions about the similarities and differences. Forexample, during a sharing-time session on animals, C5 compared tasks and observed ‘Actu-ally, C1 and I did the same thing.’ C2 also expressed his knowledge of task in terms of differ-ences. During a sharing-time session on clocks, C2 mentioned, ‘I made a moon clock,because it is different from others.’ Similarly, during the reflective dialogues too, childrencompared tasks to display their knowledge: ‘I painted three glasses here. Everybodypainted one. Also, I made the most different dinosaur, a rainbow dinosaur’ (C6).

Children identified their challenges with the process and justified them. In particular,during reflective dialogues they mentioned the level of task difficulty. They also talkedabout elements they found simple or difficult. For example, while reflecting on one ofthe samples, C9 said, ‘Very easy; it was babies’ play’ [meaning a piece of cake].

Knowledge of strategiesProviding children the opportunity to explain their learning via documentation panelshelps them think aloud and reflect on the procedures and elements of the tasks. Specifi-cally, it allowed them to focus on the materials and methods used for the activity. Mostused the sharing times to demonstrate their knowledge of strategies and some alsoexplained the procedures involved in the activity and justified the use of their strategies.

On numerous occasions during the sharing-time sessions and reflective dialogues, thechildren’s observations revealed their strategic ideas. For example, referring to his drawingon the documentation panel, C4 explained that he had used lines to identify animals. Simi-larly, on the panel for ancient human beings, C2 explained why and how he used theselected materials. He constructed a man using play dough and listed the objects heused to make the man stand upright: ‘And, here is my human; these are its bones, ifnot for the bones, this couldn’t stand upright. We glued the string on its back, stuck itin the dough like this, and put it so it remained standing.’ Children also identified oppor-tunities to explain how they did or learned something.

Metacognitive regulation

Documentation panels prompted children to talk about their previous experiences withina visible context. Their educational discussions among themselves enabled them to

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understand what was going on, monitor their peers, and make corrections as needed. Thecontent and process displayed on the panels also led children to review their learning andanalyse the processes critically.

Metacognitive regulation covers behaviours related to task-planning approaches as wellas the abilities of monitoring, controlling, and evaluating learning and outcomes. Of thethree categories, the highest number of indicators were observed and coded under the cat-egory of metacognitive regulation.

PlanningChildren talked about their previous experiences; when asked to explain a panel, they dis-cussed their activities and photographs. At the beginning of each sharing-time session, theteacher asked the children to think about what they would like to share about the activitiesin the documentation panel, and accordingly, the children planned the processes andactivities to be shared. For example, some children set sharing goals: ‘I will tell fromthis and this (pointing) colours’ (C10 on music and the emotions panel). ‘I will talkabout two things’ (C4 on the human body panel).

Children explained their decisions on how to proceed with the task. For example, in thesharing session on the Animals panel, C2 talked about the activities on the panel. AlthoughC2 was not present for one set of activities (i.e. create your own animal), he decided to talkabout the animal he imagined: ‘Since I was not here, I want to talk about the animal in mydream [thinking], “shark crab”… ’

Children also sought and collected the necessary resources during the sharing-time ses-sions and reflective dialogues. During a reflective dialogue on the panel on music andemotions, C4 wanted to find his sample and share his reflections and experiences:

Researcher C4, I can see something very colourful here.C4 Our teacher played some songs, and we showed which colour we felt on these

papers.Researcher Hmm, which colours did you feel?C4 Let me find its name first…

MonitoringMonitoring behaviours include self-commentary, reviewing task progress, checking one’sown or peers’ performances, and identifying errors. Children were mostly observed moni-toring during sharing times in the classroom with the whole class. The indicators formonitoring were observed less during reflective dialogues. Monitoring examples generallyentailed children verbally assessing their peers’ task progress and commenting on it, par-ticularly on the basis of errors. Children were also found to self-correct. For example, C6,based on his monitoring of the discussion on the human body panel, added to it by sharinghis thoughts as follows:

C5 If our heart stops beating, we would die.Teacher We can’t live, right? In order to breathe…C6 But the brain runs it, too.

An excerpt from the sharing-time session on the panel on clocks illustrated some moni-toring behaviours. For example, C10 and C2 displayed checking behaviours, including

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EARLY YEARS EDUCATION 71

error detection and self-checking their own performance. The panel included ancient andmodern clocks made by the children. The teacher asked the children to divide themselvesinto two groups: one group represented ancient clocks, and the other represented modernclocks:

C10 (to C2) You are an old clock.C2 My clock is being used now as well…Teacher Yes dear. C9, do you have more friends in this group or that one?C10 Oh, then I should go to this side (having decided after looking at his friends)

In the reflective dialogues, children mostly engaged in self-commentary. For example,while looking at a photograph on the panel on music, C5 was initially unable to recollectthe moment shown in the photograph but later she remembered: ‘What are we doingthere? I don’t remember. Ah, yes. We are painting these flags.’ Children reviewed theirprogress by tracking the completed and incomplete procedures:

Researcher Alright, do you have anything else to say?C2 It is finished.Researcher Thank you, dear C2.C2 Let me see if it is finished. Look here. I fixed our dinosaurs, planes, and tractors.

Here are the things early humans used and here are the things we have today.

ControlSeeking help was the most common form of controlling behaviour exhibited by the chil-dren. They sought help from their peers or the teacher when they were unable to recollectan item on the panels or from their previous learning experiences. As with monitoring,evidence of control behaviour was witnessed more often during sharing-time sessionsthan in reflective dialogues. Children asked questions such as ‘What was it?’ or ‘Whatwere we doing here?’ For example, in a sharing session on music and emotions, C10was unable to recollect part of the activity: ‘Here, I, ummm, which music was this?’

Children helped or guided their peers using clues, which is also an evidence of controlbehaviour. For example, C2 helped C1 by simply mentioning certain syllables:

C1 Oh yes, also here… (thinking)C2 Ma’am…Teacher Very good. You have done one of the mammals. Okay, you can also talk about the

animals you did yourself.

EvaluationChildren demonstrated evaluation abilities through comments that indicated that they hadthoughtfully reviewed their own learning. Reflective dialogues contained more evidence ofsuch behaviour. For example, C3 reflected on her task in the following words: ‘I was verysuccessful at this. Because I painted without leaving any blanks.’ C1 also reflected on herpanel activities for seasons: ‘There was a mistake, I erased it. And, I mixed these two there.’

Children also evaluated the strategies they used during their tasks. For example, C6made the following comments about his activity and the rationale for his strategy:

Researcher What are the qualities of your human? How do we know that it is an earlyhuman?

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C6 Because his hair is long like the sun.Researcher Long like the sun? Why is it long?C6 So that it becomes an early human. I made it different.

Documentation panels provided children with the opportunity to review their learn-ing and become aware of what they have learnt. For example, C7 justified his favouriteactivity as follows: ‘I learned the names of animals I like the most (which is the reason forhis favourite activity).’ We also found evidence of children reviewing task performanceand evaluating their learning during sharing-time sessions in the classroom. Their evalu-ations contained both personal and general comments. For instance, C5 mentioned: ‘Ifelt pink during the belly dance music because it felt a bit strange; but still, I felt mypink.’ Excerpts from C11 and C7’s evaluations below are examples of more generalcomments:

C7 How many people made the dinosaur museum? How many made the car museum?We should have counted it and written the numbers. There could be votes accordingto that. We would understand who was naughty, who was not naughty? (commentingon how to improve a panel activity)

C11 If our friends behaved nicely, it would be better…

The students also verbalised the parts that were difficult or easy to do, which served as anindicator of their evaluation ability:

C9 I didn’t have any difficulty in any of them. But, I had difficulty in two of these activities.C5 I had difficulty with this. And, cutting it gave me a bit of trouble.

Emotional and motivational regulation

Documentation process helps children to share their emotional and motivational experi-ences and supports the development of their ability to do so. Children are presented withevidence of their activities in class and then encouraged to express their feelings about. Thedata have been shown to support children’s learning and to facilitate the acquisition ofimportant emotional and motivational regulation skills.

Emotional and motivational monitoringThis category involves children expressing their awareness about their emotional percep-tions of a task. It also includes children’s monitoring of emotional reactions while per-forming a task. During sharing-time sessions and reflective dialogues, the childrenexhibited similar behaviours of emotional and motivational monitoring. They specificallyhighlighted the part of the panel that they wanted to share with the researcher or theirpeers. For instance, C8 said, ‘I want to talk about my own [activity].’ A noteworthyfeature of the children’s comments was their emotional reactions to their peers’ samplesand activities shown on the documentation panels. They assessed their emotional experi-ences regarding the documentation panels as follows: ‘This is really nice and colourful (C3on C10’s activity).’ ‘I like this one the most, C2’s (C10).’

Children also monitored their emotions during the sharing-time sessions and reflectivedialogues. For example, C5 communicated her feelings in a discussion on the documen-tation panel about ancient human beings:

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EARLY YEARS EDUCATION 73

Teacher, if lived in a cave, I would feel scared, sad, and hurt. The cave gets very dark at nightand what if there is a bear inside? I am very scared of bears, and I don’t like the shape of caves.

Other common references to emotional states pertained to children’s emotional experi-ences while performing activities.

Emotional or motivational controlEmotional and motivational control involves behavioural expressions aimed at regulatingemotions and motivation while performing a task.

The children maintained their focus and resisted distractions during the sharing-timesessions and reflective dialogues. Further, they changed what they wanted to share aboutthe activities on the panels, thus highlighting their motivations or emotions as follows:

C10 This is the early people’s cave. Here, they are making a fire. And here, they builta stone wheel.

Researcher Tell me…was there an activity that you had difficulty in?C10 There is no activity I had difficulty in. But, let me tell you this. The early human

lit a fire here. And cut the animal, a rhinoceros, with a spear. Its horn is broken.Then, he built the fire, cooked it, and ate it. (panel on ancient human beings)

We also found a few examples of children encouraging their peers, especially in thesharing-time sessions: By the way, won’t you talk about the animal in the create-your-own-animal activity that got your attention the most?’ (C5).

Discussion and implications

In line with Rinaldi (2006) and Clark’s (2012) claims, this study suggests that pedagogicaldocumentation enables children to demonstrate self-regulative and metacognitive abilities.According to Rinaldi (1998, 122), ‘documentation supports children’s memory, offeringthem the opportunity to retrace their own processes, to find confirmation of negation,and to self-correct’. Similarly, Dahlberg, Moss, and Pence (1999, 148) explained that ped-agogical documentation was closely related to both process and content: ‘Pedagogicaldocumentation involves the use of material as a means to reflect upon the pedagogicalwork … That reflection will be done … with others [other teachers, children, and parents]’.

The results of this study critically support these claims, as the children rethought andreflected on their tasks. In line with Sparrman and Lindgren’s (2010) and Pettersson’s(2015) arguments, documentation panel produced visibility, helping children to be seen,consulted and heard. Further, the externalisation of children’s words, artefacts, andphotos enabled them to articulate their experiences. The teacher and children used docu-mentation tools along with these visual artefacts to improve the quality of discussion andreflection.

Documentation practices are generally proposed as a tool for educational dialogue, dis-cussion, and participation in evaluation (Pettersson 2015). This study showed that as chil-dren experienced documentation panel activities; they interpreted, critiqued, andevaluated both their peers and themselves. Further, they co-constructed judgments,which is in line with Moss and Dahlberg’s (2008) findings. This reflective manner ofinstruction is a critical way to support children’s self-regulation and metacognition(Larkin 2010). The reflective practices of documentation used in this study enabled the

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children to display their self-regulatory and metacognitive abilities by expressing whatthey know, what and how they learned, and what they know about their learning.Other studies have also documented evidence of young children’s early expressions ofmetacognition when provided with a meaningful environment (Whitebread andColtman 2010).

When the aspects of self-regulation and metacognition were critically examined, chil-dren displayed indicators of metacognitive knowledge in reflective dialogues, especially theknowledge of tasks and strategies. This finding is consistent with Robson’s (2010, 2016)results that demonstrated the reflective dialogue between an adult and the child encour-aged children’s expression of metacognitive knowledge. Findings indicated that childrendisplayed more examples of monitoring and control under the category of metacognitiveregulation during sharing times. Peer interaction may account for this finding. Childrenwere more likely to check each other’s performance, listen to their peers’ critiques andevaluations, and make comments on these cases, which are indicators of monitoring.Peer interaction also enabled children to seek help and help or guide their peers, whichare indicators of control. But children also demonstrated incidents of monitoring andcontrol in reflective dialogues as well. However, the types of behaviour descriptionsaccounts for this difference. While children mostly self-commented during reflective dia-logues, they displayed more indicators of monitoring and control when it came to generalevaluations during sharing times. These indicators depended on shared thinking.

In this study, children demonstrated self-regulatory and metacognitive abilities duringtheir documentation panel activities. In the sharing-time sessions, children engaged inshared thinking (c.f., Robson 2010), which supports self-regulation and metacognitionin young children. This process is highlighted in Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural perspec-tive explaining the critical role of social interaction in promoting these skills.

Documentation allows children to present their mental images to their peers anddevelop a more conscious vision. They move from one experience to another andreflect on these shifts. It also encourages richer evaluations by allowing children tolisten and to be heard through reciprocal interaction (Rinaldi 2006). The findings ofthis study support Rinaldi’s emphasis on the role of documentation in metacognitive pro-cesses. Rinaldi also highlighted how photographs, artefacts, and notations aid memory inlearning processes and environments. This study responds to Rinaldi’s (2006) call formore observational studies. It confirms that documentation tools encouraged children’smemory and metacognitive thinking and allowed children to interpret their thinkingprocesses.

The documentation panels also encouraged interpersonal and intrapersonal communi-cation by offering children opportunities for reflection. The context provided by docu-mentation practices promotes the values of group interaction and discussion. Reflectivedialogues confirmed the value of discussing children’s reasoning, which was also high-lighted by Robson (2016). The findings of this study also support the notion that childrencan express metacognitive thought while they practice it. Reflective questions triggeredbroad metacognitive thought and encouraged the children to reflect on their strategiesfor performing tasks and stimulated self-explanation for self-regulation and metacogni-tion. Furthermore, asking children to articulate their thinking process during the taskand recognising the importance of revision itself supported metacognition and self-

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EARLY YEARS EDUCATION 75

regulation (Darling-Hammond et al. 2003). The teacher’s feedback on redirecting andrevising their learning allowed children to revisit their work with greater understanding.

In conclusion, it is found that young children practicing documentation panel activitiesdemonstrate self-regulatory and metacognitive skills. In addition, young children whoshare their learning paths and experiences using multiple language tools provide reflectiveresponses. The ‘visibility, legibility, and share ability’ (Rinaldi 2001, 52) of documentationtools facilitate self-regulation and metacognition even in early childhood.

This study aims to contribute to the research on young children by examining twoimportant and little-studied phenomena and the relationship between them. Researchemphasises the need for development of self-regulation and metacognition in earlyyears (Bronson 2000; Robson 2010). In addition, recent studies have called for researchon programmes and implementations that will foster self-regulation and metacognition(Daily 2013; Diamond and Lee 2011; Hughes 2011). Pedagogical documentation naturallyhas valuable potential to foster these concepts when used with young children. This studysearched for this potential in a qualitative manner using a natural context. This will enableeducators to examine the issue in detail and see what happens in actual early childhoodlearning environments.

The phenomena explored in this study are novel yet thought vital to the field of early child-hood education. It is therefore important to incorporate these topics in teacher education.

In this study, children’s self-regulatory and metacognitive abilities were analysed byusing a predetermined coding scheme. Although the scheme includes a variety of theelements discussed in the literature, the findings of the study are limited to the categoriesin the coding. We found that the scheme was very beneficial to analysing the data.However, with the increasing number of studies in the field, the issue remains to bestudied in a purely inductive and interpretive manner. Longitudinal studies that employgrounded theory to produce systematic findings will be of significant benefit to researchersand educators in the field.

Further research is also required to determine the contexts that promote children’s self-regulation and metacognition, and the factors that engender appropriate learning environ-ments. Besides, pedagogical documentation approach continues to gain worldwide atten-tion and more interventional studies are needed to investigate the effectiveness of thisapproach for children’s development and learning.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

ORCID

Selda Aras http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7285-0336Feyza Tantekin Erden http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6060-1877

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Appendix A

C.Ind.Le Coding Scheme: Verbal and Nonverbal Indicators of Metacognition and Self-Regulationin 3- to 5-Year-Olds

Category Name Description of behaviour ExamplesMetacognitive KnowledgeKnowledge of personsA verbalisation demonstrating theexplicit expression of one’s knowledgein relation to cognition or people ascognitive processors. It might includeknowledge about cognition in relationto:

Refers to his/her own strengths ordifficulties in learning and academicworking skills

Refers to others’ strengths or difficultiesin learning and academic workingskills

I can write my nameI can count backwardsI don’t know how to sing the song

(Continued )

78 S. ARAS AND F. T. ERDEN

Continued.Category Name Description of behaviour Examples- Self: Refers to own capabilities,

strengths and weaknesses, oracademic/ task preferences;comparative judgments aboutown abilities

– Others: Refers to others’processes of thinking or feelingtoward cognitive tasks

– Universals: Refers to universals ofpeople’s cognition

Talks about general ideas aboutlearning

Knowledge of tasksA verbalisation demonstrating theexplicit expression of one’s own long-term memory knowledge in relation toelements of the task.

Compares across tasks identifyingsimilarities and differences

Makes a judgment about the level ofdifficulty of cognitive tasks or ratesthe tasks on the basis of pre-established criteria or previousknowledge

They need to put their boots on. Andwhen they put their boots on, theydig a hole

Knowledge of strategiesA verbalisation demonstrating theexplicit expression of one’s ownknowledge in relation to strategiesused or performing a cognitive task,where a strategy is a cognitive orbehavioural activity that is employedso as to enhance performance orachieve a goal.

Defines, explains or teaches others howshe/he has done or learnedsomething

Explains procedures involved in aparticular task

Evaluates the effectiveness of one ormore strategies in relation to thecontext or the cognitive task

We don’t need to use the sticky tape,we can use the glue

You have to point it up this end so thatit is going to grow

Metacognitive RegulationPlanningAny verbalisation or behaviour relatedto the selection of proceduresnecessary for performing the task,individually or with others.

Sets or clarifies task demands andexpectations

Allocates individual roles andnegotiates responsibilities

Sets goals and targetsDecides on ways of proceeding with thetask

Seeks and collects necessary resources

I’m going to make a big circleI know…me and Harry could be theknights and you could be thepeasant

Child compares two objects beforedeciding which to use on task

MonitoringAny verbalisation or behaviour relatedto the ongoing on-task assessment ofthe quality of task performance (of selfor others) and the degree to whichperformance is progressing towards adesired goal.

Self-commentatesReviews progress on task (keeping trackof procedures currently beingundertaken and those that have beendone so far)

Rates effort on-task or rates actualperformance

Rates or makes comments on currently(sic) memory retrieval Checksbehaviours or performance, includingdetection of errors

Self-correctsChecks and/or corrects performance ofpeer

I think we’ve got one leftThis bit doesn’t fit anywhereHang on, we’ve got it a bit wrong hereChild stops mid-way through anaction (placing puzzle piece),pauses and redirects action to placeit somewhere else

ControlAny verbalisation or behaviour relatedto a change in the way a task had beenconducted (by self or others), as aresult of cognitive monitoring.

Changes strategies as a result ofprevious monitoring

Suggests and uses strategies in order tosolve the task more effectively

Applies a previously learnt strategy to anew situation

Let’s have a practiceCan you help me do it?Child points to spots on a die as hecounts

Child looks at a physical model(example: word on whiteboard)

(Continued )

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EARLY YEARS EDUCATION 79

Continued.Category Name Description of behaviour Examples

Repeats a strategy in order to check theaccuracy of the outcome

Seeks helpUses nonverbal gesture as a strategy tosupport own cognitive activity

Copies from or imitates a model Helpsor guides another child using gesture

repeatedly while completing a taskChild points at computer screen orinteractive whiteboard to indicatewhere another child should clickthe mouse

EvaluationAny verbalisation or behaviour relatedto reviewing task performance andevaluating the quality of performance(by self or others).

Reviews own learning or explains thetask

Evaluates the strategies usedRates the quality of performanceObserves or comments on task progressTests the outcome or effectiveness of astrategy in achieving a goal

He’s done really wellWe learnt how to cut, and how to stickthings together

Child rotates scissors in hands whileopening and closing them beforeinitiating cutting activity

Emotional and Motivational RegulationEmotional/motivational monitoringAny verbalisation or behaviour relatedto the assessment of the currentemotional and motivationalexperiences regarding the task.

Express awareness of positive ornegative emotional experience of atask

Monitors own emotional reactionswhile being on a task

That wasn’t very niceIt’s a bit sadI don’t want to be a peasant

Emotional/motivational controlAny verbalisation or behaviour relatedto the regulation of one’s emotionaland motivational experiences while ontask.

Controls attention and resistsdistraction or returns to task aftermomentary distraction

Self-encourages or encourages othersPersists in the face of difficulty orremains in task without help

Mine is going to be a lovely oneChild looks towards activity of othersin the classroom, then re-focuses ontask at hand and resumes activity

80 S. ARAS AND F. T. ERDEN

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Community Planning and Capacity Building

Recovery Support Function

Following a disaster, communities and their local governments are often forced to

make complex recovery decisions. These decisions range widely and can include

important topics such as business reinvestment, affordable housing, and building

long-term resilience. In addition, many of these communities may lack the capability

to address the planning and decision-making processes needed to start their recovery.

The consequences of these decisions may impact community prosperity, safety, and

identity for years to come.

What is Community Planning and Capacity Building? The Community Planning and Capacity Building Recovery Support Function, also

known as CPCB RSF, is one of six RSFs established under the National Disaster

Recovery Framework. Other RSFs include Housing, Economic, Health and Social

Services, Natural and Cultural Resources, and Infrastructure Systems.

The CPCB RSF strives to restore and strengthen state, territorial, tribal, and local

governments’ ability to plan for recovery, engage the community in the recovery planning process and build capacity for local plan implementation and recovery management. Recovery planning in the post-disaster environment builds short- and

long-term community resilience, empowers local leaders and stakeholders and

improves recovery outcomes for the individual and the community. Governmental

and non-governmental partners, coordinated by FEMA, come together under the

banner of the CPCB RSF to share information and pool planning support resources.

These resources can include planning technical assistance, program support, or

funding for planning and capacity building-related initiatives.

Mission of Community Planning

and Capacity Building Recovery

Support Function (CPCB RSF):

The mission of the CPCB RSF is to enable

local governments to effectively and

efficiently carry out community-based

recovery planning and management in a

post disaster environment. CPCB also

supports state or territorial governments

in developing programs of support for

local recovery planning.

Coordinating Agency:

Department of Homeland Security/Federa

Emergency Management Agency

Primary Agency:

Department of Housing and Urban

Development

Supporting Agencies Include:

Corp. for National & Community Service

Department of Agriculture

Department of Commerce

Department of Education

Department of Energy

Dept. of Health and Human Services

Department of Interior

Department of Justice

Department of Transportation

Environmental Protection Agency

Nat. Voluntary Organizations Active in

Disaster

Small Business Administration

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

U.S. Access Board

Non-Governmental Partners Include:

American Planning Association

American Red Cross

International City/County Management

Association

National Association of Development

Organizations

The American Institute of Architects

…and others

Community Planning and Capacity Building

Recovery Support Function

What does the CPCB RSF do BEFORE a disaster? The CPCB RSF coordinates assistance among federal and non-federal partners to

help local governments and tribes prepare for disaster recovery. The CPCB RSF

works through partners to communicate and coordinate availability of guidance

materials, tools and training for developing local and tribal pre-disaster recovery and

resilience plans. The RSF also builds a network of agencies and organizations that

are prepared to aid tribes and local governments with planning when disaster strikes.

What does the CPCB RSF do AFTER a disaster? The CPCB RSF coordinates and facilitates support among a variety of partners for

the planning, capacity, and resilience building capabilities needed by local or tribal

governments following large or unique incidents. Coordination and partner support is

tailored to the needs of disaster-impacted states, territories, tribes, and local

governments through information sharing, assessment, and strategy development

process.

Examples of coordinated CPCB RSF support activities include:

 Education, Peer-to-Peer Forums and Workshops give recovery planners and

officials an opportunity to ask questions and benefit from the recovery planning

lessons learned by others.

 Recovery Planning is often needed by communities to begin an organized process.

CPCB federal partners, as well as universities and NGOs, can pool resources to

provide planning technical assistance, staffing resources and funding.

 Community Engagement after a disaster can be fraught with challenges, including

resident displacement. CPCB partners can advise or support communities with

reaching and involving all stakeholders in recovery planning.

 Management Capacity is often needed to implement recovery plans. CPCB partners can

help communities quickly define local capacity building needs and identify post-

disaster resources to fill those management needs.

 Planning and related Tools, Guidance, Training and other just-in-time materials are

available through the Community Recovery Management Toolkit and other partner

resources.

Related Resources:

National Disaster Recovery Framework:

http://www.fema.gov/national-disaster-recovery-framework

Does your community have a recovery plan or an emergency operations plan?

www.fema.gov/plan

Community Recovery Planning and Management Toolkit:

http://www.fema.gov/national-disaster-

recovery-framework/community-recovery-

management-toolkit

Does your community have a hazard

mitigation plan?

Local Mitigation Planning Handbook –

http://www.fema.gov/media-

library/assets/documents/31598

Hazard Mitigation: Integrating Best

Practices into Planning –

http://www.fema.gov/media-

library/assets/documents/19261

Does your community have a pre-disaster

recovery ordinance?

American Planning Association

https://www.planning.org/research/postdi

saster/

Does your community need an economic

recovery plan?

International Economic Development

Council

http://restoreyoureconomy.org/recovery/p

ost-disaster-planning-for-economic-

recovery/

Does your community have a continuity of

operations plan?

Continuity Planning & Templates

http://www.fema.gov/planning-templates

Training for disaster recovery

Emergency Management Institute

http://www.training.fema.gov/emi/

National CPCB RSF Coordinator:

Matt Campbell

Federal Emergency Management Agency

500 C Street SW

Washington, DC 20472

[email protected] 2016

Fact Sheet

Visit us at http://www.fema.gov/nationalpreparedness

“FEMA’s mission is to support our citizens and first responders to ensure that as a nation we work together to build, sustain, and improve our capability to prepare for, protect against, respond to, recover from, and mitigate all hazards.”

National Planning System

The National Planning System provides a unified approach and common terminology to plan for all-threats and hazards and across all mission areas (Prevention, Protection, Mitigation, Response and Recovery). These plans—whether strategic, operational, or tactical—enable the whole community to build, sustain, and deliver the core capabilities identified in the National Preparedness Goal.

The National Planning System contains two key elements: the Planning Architecture, which describes the strategic, operational, and tactical levels of planning and planning integration; and the Planning Process, which describes the steps necessary to develop a comprehensive plan, from forming a team to implementing the plan.

Planning Architecture The National Planning System consists of three levels of planning:

• Strategic-level planning sets the context and expectations for operational planning.

• Operational-level planning provides the tasks and resources needed to execute the strategy.

• Tactical-level planning shows how to apply resources in order to complete the operational tasks within a given timeframe.

The three levels of planning generally fall into two categories:

• Deliberate planning involves developing strategic, operational, and tactical plans to prevent, protect against, mitigate the effects of, respond to, and recover from threats or hazards.

• Incident action planning occurs in a time-constrained environment to develop rapidly adaptable operational and tactical plans in response to an imminent or ongoing incident.

Knowing which plans a jurisdiction needs and in what order to develop or revise plans is key to the success of planning activities. Planning activities

involve two parts: Ensuring support of applicable parties and Conducting a common planning process.

Planning Process There are six steps in the common planning process:

1. Form a Collaborative Planning Team 2. Understand the Situation 3. Determine Goals and Objectives 4. Plan Development 5. Plan Preparation, Review, and Approval 6. Plan Implementation and Maintenance

About the National Preparedness System

The goal of the National Preparedness System is to strengthen the security and resilience of the United States through systematic preparation for the threats that pose the greatest risk to the security of the Nation. It identifies five mission areas—Prevention, Protection, Mitigation, Response, and Recovery—and builds on proven processes to guide the Nation’s approach for ensuring and enhancing national preparedness.

Key documents related to the National Preparedness System include:

• National Preparedness Goal defines a set of core capabilities within each mission area. Core capabilities are the distinct elements needed to achieve national preparedness.

• National Planning Frameworks set the strategy and doctrine for building, sustaining, and delivering the core capabilities necessary for achieving the National Preparedness Goal.

• Federal Interagency Operational Plans build upon the National Planning Frameworks and are the concept of operations used to integrate and synchronize existing national-level Federal capabilities to support local, state, tribal, territorial, insular area, and Federal plans and are supported by Federal department-level operational plans, where appropriate. They describe how the Federal government aligns resources and delivers core capabilities to reach our shared National Preparedness Goal.

Fact Sheet

Visit us at http://www.fema.gov/nationalpreparedness

“FEMA’s mission is to support our citizens and first responders to ensure that as a nation we work together to build, sustain, and improve our capability to prepare for, protect against, respond to, recover from, and mitigate all hazards.”

National Planning System

The National Planning System provides a unified approach and common terminology to plan for all-threats and hazards and across all mission areas (Prevention, Protection, Mitigation, Response and Recovery). These plans—whether strategic, operational, or tactical—enable the whole community to build, sustain, and deliver the core capabilities identified in the National Preparedness Goal.

The National Planning System contains two key elements: the Planning Architecture, which describes the strategic, operational, and tactical levels of planning and planning integration; and the Planning Process, which describes the steps necessary to develop a comprehensive plan, from forming a team to implementing the plan.

Planning Architecture The National Planning System consists of three levels of planning:

• Strategic-level planning sets the context and expectations for operational planning.

• Operational-level planning provides the tasks and resources needed to execute the strategy.

• Tactical-level planning shows how to apply resources in order to complete the operational tasks within a given timeframe.

The three levels of planning generally fall into two categories:

• Deliberate planning involves developing strategic, operational, and tactical plans to prevent, protect against, mitigate the effects of, respond to, and recover from threats or hazards.

• Incident action planning occurs in a time-constrained environment to develop rapidly adaptable operational and tactical plans in response to an imminent or ongoing incident.

Knowing which plans a jurisdiction needs and in what order to develop or revise plans is key to the success of planning activities. Planning activities

involve two parts: Ensuring support of applicable parties and Conducting a common planning process.

Planning Process There are six steps in the common planning process:

1. Form a Collaborative Planning Team 2. Understand the Situation 3. Determine Goals and Objectives 4. Plan Development 5. Plan Preparation, Review, and Approval 6. Plan Implementation and Maintenance

About the National Preparedness System

The goal of the National Preparedness System is to strengthen the security and resilience of the United States through systematic preparation for the threats that pose the greatest risk to the security of the Nation. It identifies five mission areas—Prevention, Protection, Mitigation, Response, and Recovery—and builds on proven processes to guide the Nation’s approach for ensuring and enhancing national preparedness.

Key documents related to the National Preparedness System include:

• National Preparedness Goal defines a set of core capabilities within each mission area. Core capabilities are the distinct elements needed to achieve national preparedness.

• National Planning Frameworks set the strategy and doctrine for building, sustaining, and delivering the core capabilities necessary for achieving the National Preparedness Goal.

• Federal Interagency Operational Plans build upon the National Planning Frameworks and are the concept of operations used to integrate and synchronize existing national-level Federal capabilities to support local, state, tribal, territorial, insular area, and Federal plans and are supported by Federal department-level operational plans, where appropriate. They describe how the Federal government aligns resources and delivers core capabilities to reach our shared National Preparedness Goal.